![]() While, most of the neonatal innate immune cells (e.g., neutrophils and monocytes) present contained activity and lower frequencies compared to their adult counterparts, innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), a distinct cellular component of innate immunity, show higher level of activity and presence during period of infancy compared to later stages of life and adulthood, which may suggest a role for ILCs in variable susceptibility to certain conditions during life time. This “quiescent mode” of innate immune system is part of a highly regulated process to fulfill all requirements of multi-layered process of early life, implemented effectively through the cells of innate immune system. Although, the neonatal immune system is plastic, however, it is highly tolerant which is due to both the fetal development during gestation as well as significant sudden changes in fetal environment and enormous exposure to the new antigens and intestinal bacteria and their products. To survive, the neonate must interact with many organisms, making use of some, while vigorously defending against the others like a nation conducting trade with friendly countries and guarding against hostile ones from invading it, waging wars if necessary. The fetus is suddenly removed from a protected intra-uterine environment that is aquatic, warm, and nearly sterile, to the dry, cold external world laden with microbes. 3College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States. ![]() 2Department of Oral Biology, College of Dental Medicine, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States.1Children’s Hospital of Georgia, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States.Hesam Khodadadi 2 Aneeq Malik 2 Brea Davidson 1 Évila da Silva Lopes Salles 2 Jatinder Bhatia 1 Vanessa L.
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